Metaphors We Live By | George Lakoff and Mark Johnson | Cliff Note Books
“Metaphors We Live By” is a book written by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson that explores the role of metaphor in shaping our understanding of the world. The book argues that metaphors are not simply figures of speech, but fundamental cognitive mechanisms that shape our thoughts, actions, and perceptions.
The authors begin by challenging the traditional view of metaphor as a decorative device used in language. They propose that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life and deeply embedded in our conceptual systems. According to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphors are not just linguistic expressions; they are fundamental to how we think and experience the world.
The book highlights that metaphors are not limited to poetry or literature but are present in everyday language, thought, and communication. It demonstrates how our understanding of abstract concepts is often structured and understood through metaphorical mappings from more concrete domains.
Lakoff and Johnson explore a range of metaphors that influence our thinking across various domains, such as time, emotions, morality, politics, and the self. They examine metaphors like “time is money,” “love is a journey,” or “arguments are wars” and explain how these conceptual metaphors shape our understanding and guide our actions.
Furthermore, the authors discuss the cultural and social dimensions of metaphors, emphasizing that metaphors are not universal but shaped by specific cultural contexts. They argue that different cultures may have different conceptual metaphors that influence their worldview and shape their understanding of reality.
The book also examines the cognitive processes involved in metaphorical thinking and suggests that metaphorical reasoning is not only limited to language but extends to non-verbal and embodied experiences.
The key thesis of “Metaphors We Live By” is that metaphors are not mere linguistic flourishes but powerful tools that shape our understanding, influence our perceptions, and guide our actions. By revealing the pervasive presence of metaphors in our everyday lives, the book challenges traditional views of language and cognition, offering a new perspective on how we make sense of the world.
Quotes from Metaphors We Live By
“Metaphor is one of our most important tools for trying to comprehend partially what cannot be comprehended totally.”
“Metaphors can kill, as well as create.”
“Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.”
“Metaphors are not mere devices of the poetic imagination; they are fundamental to all thought, action, and communication.”
“Metaphors structure not just our language, but also our thoughts and actions.”
“Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action.”
“Metaphor is not something that exists separately from language; it is a part of language.”
“Metaphors can create realities for us, especially social realities. A metaphor may thus be a guide for future action.”
“Metaphors shape our perceptions, understanding, and actions by framing our experiences and guiding our reasoning.”
“Metaphors do not merely reflect our current understanding of the world; they actively shape and structure our thoughts.”
Biographies of the Authors of Metaphors We Live By
George Lakoff, born on May 24, 1941, is an American cognitive linguist and philosopher. He obtained his Bachelor’s degree in Mathematics and Literature from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1962. Later, he pursued a Ph.D. in Linguistics from Indiana University, which he completed in 1966.
Lakoff’s work primarily focuses on the relationship between language, thought, and social cognition. He is best known for his theory of conceptual metaphor, which he developed in collaboration with Mark Johnson. Lakoff argues that metaphors are not just linguistic devices but fundamental to human cognition, shaping our understanding of abstract concepts through mappings from more concrete domains.
Throughout his career, Lakoff has made significant contributions to the field of cognitive linguistics, exploring topics such as embodiment, framing, and conceptual systems. His research has been influential in various disciplines, including linguistics, philosophy, cognitive science, and political science.
Mark Johnson, born on June 24, 1949, is an American philosopher and cognitive scientist. He received his Ph.D. in Philosophy from the University of Chicago in 1979. Johnson’s work focuses on the philosophy of mind, cognitive science, and embodied cognition.
Johnson’s collaboration with George Lakoff on “Metaphors We Live By” led to groundbreaking insights into the role of metaphors in cognition and language. Their book challenged traditional views of metaphor and provided a new understanding of how metaphorical thinking shapes our conceptual systems and guides our actions.
In addition to “Metaphors We Live By,” Johnson has authored and co-authored several other influential works, including “The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason” and “Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought.”
Both Lakoff and Johnson have had a significant impact on the fields of linguistics, cognitive science, philosophy, and beyond. Their collaborative work on metaphor and conceptual systems has provided new perspectives on the relationship between language, thought, and the embodiment of meaning.
Criticms of Metaphors We Live By
“Metaphors We Live By” by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson has received widespread acclaim for its groundbreaking insights into the role of metaphor in shaping human cognition. However, it has also faced some criticisms. Here are a few common criticisms:
Reductionism: Some critics argue that Lakoff and Johnson’s approach to metaphor reduces complex cognitive processes to simplistic mappings. They suggest that their emphasis on embodiment and metaphorical mappings may oversimplify the intricacies of human thought and ignore other important cognitive mechanisms.
Lack of Empirical Evidence: Critics argue that the book relies heavily on conceptual analysis and philosophical argumentation rather than empirical evidence. They suggest that more empirical research is needed to support the claims made in the book and to test the generalizability of the findings.
Cultural Variation: While the book acknowledges the influence of culture on metaphors, some critics argue that it downplays the diversity of metaphors across cultures. They suggest that cultural differences in metaphorical thinking are more significant than the book suggests, and a more nuanced understanding of cultural variation is needed.
Overemphasis on Language: Some critics argue that the book places too much emphasis on the role of language in metaphor, neglecting the non-verbal and embodied aspects of metaphorical thinking. They suggest that non-linguistic forms of expression and embodied experiences play a crucial role in shaping metaphoric understanding.
Incomplete Treatment of Metaphor: Critics argue that the book focuses primarily on conceptual metaphors, neglecting other forms of metaphorical thinking, such as poetic or creative metaphors. They suggest that a more comprehensive treatment of metaphor should consider its diverse manifestations.
It’s important to note that these criticisms are not universally held, and “Metaphors We Live By” remains a highly influential and widely respected work. However, as with any scholarly work, it’s valuable to engage with different perspectives and critically evaluate the arguments presented.
Summary of Metaphors We Live By
Chapter 1: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor
The authors introduce the cognitive theory of metaphor and challenge the conventional view of metaphor as a purely linguistic phenomenon. They argue that metaphor is not just a matter of language but a fundamental cognitive mechanism that shapes our understanding of the world.
Chapter 2: More Than Cool Reason
This chapter explores the role of metaphor in reasoning and understanding. The authors argue that metaphorical concepts structure our thinking and influence how we perceive and interpret reality. They demonstrate that metaphor is not limited to language but extends to our everyday experiences.
Chapter 3: The Metaphorical Structure of the World
Lakoff and Johnson discuss how metaphors structure our conceptual systems and shape our understanding of various domains. They analyze specific metaphors in areas such as time, emotions, morality, and politics, highlighting how metaphorical mappings from physical experience guide our understanding in these domains.
Chapter 4: Metaphor and Cultural Coherence
This chapter delves into the cultural dimensions of metaphor. The authors explore how metaphors reflect cultural values, beliefs, and assumptions, and how they contribute to creating cultural coherence. They emphasize that metaphors are not universal but shaped by specific cultural contexts.
Chapter 5: Orientational Metaphors
Lakoff and Johnson focus on orientational metaphors, which involve spatial orientation and bodily experiences. They discuss metaphors such as “up/down,” “front/back,” and “center/periphery” and their influence on our understanding of concepts such as power, control, and moral values. The authors demonstrate how these metaphors structure our thinking and influence our actions.
Chapter 6: Metaphor and Cultural Models
This chapter explores the relationship between metaphors and cultural models. The authors discuss how metaphors are embedded within broader cultural models that shape our understanding of concepts, values, and social structures. They illustrate how cultural models influence our perception and interpretation of the world.
Chapter 7: Metaphor, Morality, and Politics
Lakoff and Johnson examine the role of metaphor in shaping moral and political discourse. They argue that metaphors are not neutral but carry underlying moral and political assumptions. The chapter explores metaphors used in political rhetoric and how they frame debates, influence public opinion, and shape our moral judgments.
Chapter 8: The Systematicity of Metaphorical Concepts
This chapter delves into the systematicity of metaphorical concepts and how they relate to one another. The authors discuss metaphorical systems that organize our understanding of various domains. They explore how metaphorical mappings between domains contribute to coherence in our conceptual systems.
Chapter 9: The Primacy of Metaphor
Lakoff and Johnson assert the primacy of metaphor in shaping our conceptual systems and argue against the view of metaphor as a mere ornament to language. They discuss how metaphorical thinking is rooted in embodied experience and influences our cognition at a fundamental level.
Chapter 10: Philosophy in the Flesh?
In the final chapter, the authors reflect on the implications of the cognitive theory of metaphor for philosophy and the nature of reality. They challenge traditional dualistic and objectivist views and propose an embodied and metaphorical understanding of human cognition and experience.